burnup

• “For how the energetic cycles of that power the cell emerged, that alone has only entertained many interesting possibilities, hot core and cooler oceans, reducing ocean/sea floor/land and more oxidizing atmosphere, molecules generated by incubation in space and subsequent infall to earth, reacting with terrestrial molecules, photochemistry (from a uv-rich sun), concentration gradients of a wide variety of sorts, reactions of molecules produced by energetic processes involving meteor impact/burnup.”

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• “An increase in fuel enrichment from 2% to 2.4% to maintain fuel burnup with an increase in neutron absorption (i.e., less reliance on cooling water for this function).”

  Light water graphite reactor (RBMK)

• “Type Composition Origin Use Reactor-grade from high-burnup fuel 55-70% Pu-239, 19% Pu-240, typically about 30% non-fissile Comprises about 1% of spent fuel from normal operation of civil nuclear reactors used for electricity generation As ingredient (c5%) of MOX fuel for normal reactor Weapons-grade Pu-239 with”

  Plutonium

• “As reactor operators seek to burn fuel harder and longer, increasing burnup from around 30,000 MW days per tonne a few years ago to over 50,000 MWd/t now, MOX use becomes more attractive.”

  Mixed oxide fuel (MOX)

• “Authorisation for enrichment up to 10% was sought - most enrichment plants operate up to 5% U-235 product, which is becoming a serious constraint as reactor fuel burnup increases.”

  Uranium enrichment

• “All these considerations mean that only RepU from low-enriched, low-burnup used fuel is normally recycled directly through an enrichment plant.”

  Uranium enrichment

• “The plutonium isotopic composition of used MOX fuel at 45 GWd/tU burnup is about 37% 239Pu, 32% 240Pu, 16% 241Pu, 12% 242Pu and 4% 238Pu.”

  Mixed oxide fuel (MOX)

• “Two or three categories are possible: degraded Pu (e.g., in high-burnup fuel), low-grade Pu (e.g., separated from spent fuel of normal burnup), and high-grade Pu (e.g., from weapons or low-burnup fuel).”

  Nuclear safeguards (non-proliferation)

• “The reactivity control system is passive, using lithium expansion modules (LEM) which give burnup compensation, partial load operation, and negative reactivity feedback.”

  Fast neutron reactors (FBR)

• “As well as many passive safety features, the nuclear reactor design is simpler overall and uses high-burnup fuels enriched to 3.54%, giving it refuelling intervals of up to 24 months.”

  Advanced nuclear power reactors

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